Abstract
Introduction. This article discusses current issues of implicit knowledge usage. A brief literature review presents the data on two types of implicit learning: 1) learning a system of rules (in artificial grammar learning) and 2) understanding the alternation patterns of stimuli (in learning sequences). This review showed that there are no results of partial reproduction of an implicitly memorized sequence. The study used the transfer effect since it allows modeling various conditions for usage of implicit knowledge and reduces explicit control. This study aimed to detect the transfer effect in selective sequence reproduction. Methods. The study was carried out in the sequence learning paradigm. At the first stage, a perceptual sequence was presented in the experimental group. At the second stage, the stimuli were arranged in a horizontal row. Several stimuli of this spatial sequence corresponded to the architecture of the perceived sequence of the first stage. Stimuli were presented randomly in the control groups. The sample comprised 45 subjects. Results and Discussion. The subjects of the experimental group showed a statistically significant decrease in the reaction time to the stimuli of the spatial sequence that corresponded to the architecture of the perceived sequence. Conclusion. The transfer effect was presented in selective reproduction of both an implicitly learned system of rules and patterns of stimuli alternating. The findings from this study support the idea that not only fragments but also general abstract structures of sequences are implicitly memorized.
References
Agafonov, A. Yu., Burmistrov, S. N., Kozlov, D. D., & Kryukova, A. P. (2018). Implicit learning of combined sequences. Integratsiya obrazovaniya (Integration of Education), 22(2), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.15507/1991-9468.091.022.201802.339-352 (in Russ.).
Altmann, G. T. M., Dienes, Z., & Goode, A. (1995). Modality independence of implicitly learned grammatical knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 899–912. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.899
Bird, G., Osman, M., Saggerson, А., & Heyes, C. (2005). Sequence learning by action, observation and action observation. British Journal of Psychology, 96(3), 371–388. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712605X47440
Burmistrov, S. N., Agafonov, A. Yu., Fomicheva, A. D., & Shilov, Yu. E. (2021). The role of interference in implicit learning of the Stroop stimuli sequence. Russian Psychological Journal, 18(2), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2021.2.2 (in Russ.).
Cleeremans, A., Allakhverdov, V., & Kuvaldina, M. (Eds.). (2019). Implicit learning: 50 years on. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315628905
Cleeremans, A., Destrebecqz, A., & Boyer, M. (1998). Implicit learning: News from the front. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2(10), 406–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01232-7
Clegg, B. A., DiGirolamo, G. J., & Keele, S. W. (1998). Sequence learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2(8), 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01202-9
Cohen, A., Ivry, R. I., & Keele, S. W. (1990). Attention and structure in sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.1.17
Curran, T., & Keele, S. W. (1993). Attentional and nonattentional forms of sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19(1), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.19.1.189
Destrebecqz, A., & Cleeremans, A. (2001). Can sequence learning be implicit? New evidence with the process dissociation procedure. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(2), 343–350. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03196171
Fu, Q., Sun, H., Dienes, Z., & Fu, X. (2018). Implicit sequence learning of chunking and abstract structures. Consciousness and Cognition, 62, 42–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2018.04.010
Ivanchei, I. (2014). Theories of implicit learning: Contradictory approaches to the same phenomenon or consistent descriptions of different types of learning? Rossiiskii zhurnal kognitivnoi nauki (The Russian Journal of Cognitive Science), 1(4), 4–30. (in Russ.).
Ivanchei, I. I., & Moroshkina, N. V. (2011). Measures of consciousness: Old problem in a new way. In V. M. Allakhverdov, O. V. Zashchirinskaya (Eds.), Cognitive psychology of consciousness (pp. 39–54). St. Petersburg: LEMA. (in Russ.).
Iwasaki, K., Kuriyama, Y., Kondoh, S., & Shirayori, A. (2018). Structuring engineers’ implicit knowledge of forming process design by using a graph model. Procedia CIRP, 67, 563–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2017.12.261
Jiménez, L., Vaquero, J. M. M., & Lupiáñez, J. (2006). Qualitative differences between implicit and explicit sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32(3), 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.32.3.475
Kryukova, A. P. (2016). Knowledge without awareness: The experience of exploring implicit learning. Vestnik Kemerovskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta (Bulletin of Kemerovo State University), 4, 166–170. https://doi.org/10.21603/2078-8975-2016-4-166-170 (in Russ.).
Kryukova, A. P. (2020). Transfer of implicit regularity in learning sequences of different types. Peterburgskii psikhologicheskii zhurnal (Saint Petersburg Psychological Journal), 32, 1–17. (in Russ.).
Kryukova, A. P., Agafonov, A. Yu., Burmistrov, S. N., Kozlov, D. D., & Shilov, Yu. E. (2018). Effect of transfer of implicit knowledge of artificial grammar under sensorimotor activity. Eksperimental'naya psikhologiya (Experimental Psychology), 11(3), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.17759/exppsy.2018110305 (in Russ.).
Moroshkina, N. V., Ivanchei, I. I., & Karpov, A. D. (2017). Implicit learning. In V. F. Spiridonov (Ed.), Selected sections of the psychology of learning: a collective monograph (pp. 223–275). Moscow: Delo. (in Russ.).
Nissen, M. J., & Bullemer, P. (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(87)90002-8
Perruchet, P. (2008). Implicit learning. In Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference (Vol. 2, pp. 597–621). Academic Press.
Perruchet, P., & Amorim, M.-A. (1992). Conscious knowledge and changes in performance in sequence learning: Evidence against dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(4), 785–800. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.18.4.785
Perruchet, P., & Pacton, S. (2006). Implicit learning and statistical learning: One phenomenon, two approaches. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(5), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.03.006
Reber, A. S. (1967). Implicit learning of artificial grammars. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6(6), 855–863. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80149-X
Reber, A. S. (1969). Transfer of syntactic structure in synthetic languages. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81(1), 115–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0027454
Reber, A. S. (1989). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118(3), 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.118.3.219
Sanchez, D. J., Yarnik, E. N., & Reber, P. J. (2015). Quantifying transfer after perceptual-motor sequence learning: How inflexible is implicit learning? Psychological Research, 79, 327–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-014-0561-9
Tanaka, K., & Watanabe, K. (2014). Implicit transfer of spatial structure in visuomotor sequence learning. Acta Psychologica, 153, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.09.003
Ushakov, D. V., & Valueva, E. A. (2006). Parallel discoveries in Russian and global psychology: An example of intuition and implicit learning. In The image of Russian psychology in the regions of the country and in the world: Proceedings of the International Forum and the School of Young Scientists of the IP RAS (pp. 32–44). Moscow: Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences. (in Russ.).
Willingham, D. B. (1999). Implicit motor sequence learning is not purely perceptual. Memory & Cognition, 27, 561–572. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211549
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2022 Kryukova A. P., Agafonov A. Yu., Burmistrov S. N.