Abstract
The paper presents an experience of research of a complex identity as identification of a conflict between civil European and religious Islamic cultures. Social identity is a person’s representation of himself/herself in social structures of different scales: national, ethnic, and religious. It is proved that religious identification forms social, as well as personal identity of a Muslim. The authors consider the development of Islamic personal identity in the process of self-identifying reflection and intragroup and extragroup relations in the religious community. The parameters of identity are defined by: a) individual interpretation of
Islam by the religious person, b) interpretation of Islam in the religious community, c) relations between the religious person, community and other social groups. The concept of a complex social identity (S. Roccas, M. Brewer) was a theoretical construct used for determining the compatibility of civil and religious identity and evaluating its complexity. The study involved Muslims with different levels of Islamic
personal identity: missing, determined, found and acquired.
The study established the tendency of the reduction in the level of civil social identity under the influence of the religious identity of people who identified themselves with Islam. The problem of their social identity was studied in metaphors of conflict and balance from the European social and psychological practice. The metaphor of
conflict is based on the impossibility of acculturation of the Islamic communities and predicts the development of destructive relations between the religious people, their religious communities, and other social groups. The metaphor of balance presupposes the collapse of Islamic personal identity as a result of the reduction of radicalism in
the religious communities and encouragement of individualization of Muslims by means of political, social, and cultural recognition in the society.
References
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Drobizheva L. M. Identichnost' i etnicheskie ustanovki russkikh v svoei inoetnicheskoi srede [Identity and ethnic attitudes of Russians in their foreign ethnic environment]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia – Sociological Research, 2010, no. 12, pp. 49–58.
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Leonov N. I. Problema uregulirovaniia konfliktov v interkul'turnom mire // Sotsial'nyi mir cheloveka. Vyp. 6 [The problem of arrangement conflicts in the intercultural world: The social world of a man. Vol. 6]. Materialy VI Mezhdunarodnoi nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii «Chelovek i mir: mirosozidanie, konflikt i mediatsiia v interkul'turnom mire» [Proc. the VI International Theoretical and Practical Conference “A man and the world: peace-building, conflict and mediation in the intercultural world”]. Izhevsk, ERGO Publ., 14–16 April, 2016, pp. 7–10.
Tkhostov A. Sh., Rasskazova E. I. Identichnost' kak psikhologicheskii konstrukt: vozmozhnosti i ogranicheniia mezhdistsiplinarnogo podkhoda [Identity as a psychological construct: potential and limitations of the interdisciplinary approach]. Psikhologicheskie issledovaniia – Psychological Research, 2012, V. 5, no. 26, P. 2.
Khait M. A. Krosskul'turnoe issledovanie vzaimosviazi slozhnosti sotsial'noi identichnosti i otnosheniia k neopredelennosti v Rossii i Italii [The cross-cultural study of the correlation of the complexity of social identity and the relation to uncertainty in Italy and Russia]. Sotsial'naia psikhologiia i obshchestvo – Social Psychology and Society, 2014, V. 5, no. 2, pp. 87–99.
Khukhlaev O. E., Khait M. A. Slozhnost' sotsial'noi identichnosti: kontseptsiia S. Rokkas i M. Briuera [The complexity of social identity: the concept of S. Roccas and M. Brewer]. Sotsial'naia psikhologiia i obshchestvo – Social Psychology and Society, 2012, no. 3, pp. 16–26.
Al-Raffie D. Social Identity Theory for Investigating Islamic Extremism in the Diaspora. Journal of Strategic Security, 2013, no. 4 (6), pp. 67–91.
Bakker E. Jihadi terrorists in Europe, their characteristics and the circumstances in which they joined the jihad: An exploratory study. Hague: Clingendael Institute, 2006. URL: http://www.clingendael.nl /sites/default /files/ 20061200_ cscp_csp_bakker.pdf
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Brewer M. B., Pierce K. P. Social identity complexity and outgroup tolerance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2005, no. 31, pр. 428–437.
Ellemers N., Spears R., Doosje B. Self and Social Identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 2002, no. 53, pр. 161–186.
Feitosa J., Salas E., Salazar M. R. Social Identity: Clarifying its Dimensions across Cultures. Psihologijske teme, 2012, no. 3 (21), pp. 527–548.
Fleischmann F. P., Karen K. O. Religious Identification and Politicization in the Face of Discrimination. Support for Political Islam and Political Action among the Turkish and Moroccan Second Generation in Europe. British Journal of Social Psychology, 2011, no. 4 (50), pp. 628–648.
Harff B. No lessons learned from the Holocaust? Assessing risks of genocide and political mass murder since 1955. American Political Science Review, 2003, no. 1 (97), pр. 57–73.
Hoffman B. “Holy terror”: the implications of terrorism motivated by a religious imperative. Worldwide Department of Defense Combating Terrorism Conference. Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1993. 201 p.
Hogg M. A., Williams K. D. From I to we: Social identity and the collective self. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2000, no. 1 (4), pр. 81–97.
Juergensmeyer M. Global Dimensions of Religious Terrorism. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 141–160.
Kahani-Hopkins V., Hopkins N. Representing’ British Muslims: The strategic dimensions to identity construction. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2002, no. 25, pр. 288–309.
Kinnvall C. Globalization and religious nationalism: Self, identity, and the search for ontological security. Political Psychology, 2004, no. 25, pp. 741–767.
Lathion S. Muslims in Switzerland: Is Citizenship Really Incompatible with Muslim Identity? Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2008, no. 1 (28), P. 56.
Loza W. The prevalence of Middle-Eastern extremist ideologies among some Canadian offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2010, no. 5 (25), pp. 919–928.
Marcia J. Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, no. 3, pp. 551–558.
Marranci G. Faith, Ideology and Fear: Muslim Identities Within and Beyond Prisons. N. Y., London: Continuum, 2011. 181 p.
Miller K. P., Brewer M. B., Arbuckle N. L. Social identity complexity: Its correlates and antecedents. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 2009, no. 12, pp. 79–94.
Mirella L., Stroink J. Processes and Preconditions Underlying Terrorism in Second-Generation Immigrants. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 2007, no. 3 (13), pр. 293–312.
Nielsen J. S. Muslims in Western Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012. 248 p.
Pargament K. I., Koenig H. G., Perez L. M. The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the cope. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2000, no. 4 (56), pp. 519–543.
Peek L. The development of religious identity. Sociology of Religion, 2005, no. 3 (66), pp. 215–242.
Post J. M., et al. The Psychology of Suicide Terrorism. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 2009, no. 1 (72), pp. 13–31.
Reicher S. D., Haslam S. A., Rath R. Making a virtue of evil: A five-step social identity model of the development of collective hate. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2008, no. 2, pp. 1313–1344.
Roccas S., Brewer M. B. Social identity complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2002, no. 6, pр. 88–106.
Sageman M. Understanding terrorist networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. 200 p.
Schmid K., Hewstone M., Tausch N., Cairns E., Hughes J. Antecedents and Consequences of Social Identity Complexity: Intergroup Contact, Distinctiveness Threat and Outgroup Attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2009, no. 8 (35), P. 1085.
Silke A. Holy warriors: exploring the psychological processes of jihadi radicalization. European Journal of Criminology, 2008, no. 1 (5), pp. 99–123.
Stryker S. & Burke P. J. The Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 2000, no. 4, pp. 284–297.
Turner J. Self and collective: cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1994, no. 5 (20), pp. 454–463.
Verkuyten M. Religious group identification and interreligious relations: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 2007, no. 3, pp. 341–357.
Verkuyten M., Martinovic B. Social identity complexity and immigrants attitudes toward the host nation: the intersection of ethnic and religious group identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 2012, no. 7 (42), pp. 893–903.
Verkuyten M., Yildiz A. A. Muslim immigrants and religious group feelings: A study among Sunni and Alevi Turkis Dutch. Ethnic and Racial Studie, 2009, no. 32, pp. 1121–1142.
Verkuyten M., Yildiz A. A. National (dis)identification and ethnic and religious identity: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2007, no. 33, pр. 1448–1462.
Vilchinsky N., Kravetz S. How are religious belief and behavior good for you? An investigation of mediators relating religion to mental health in a sample of Israeli Jewish students. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 2005, no. 44, pp. 459–471.
Waterman A. S. Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychologist, 1982, no. 18, pp. 341–358.
Wilner A., Dubouloz C.-J. Homegrown Terrorism and Transformative Learning: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding Radicalization. Global Change, Peace and Security, 2010, no. 1 (22), P. 41.
Yasmeen S. Understanding Muslim Identities: From Perceived Relative Exclusion to Inclusion. Perth: Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Office of Multicultural Interests, 2008. URL: http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/a-diverse-australia/national-action-plan/_attach/final-muslim-identities.pdf
Young R. & Collin A. Introduction: constructivism and social constructionism in the career field. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 2004, no. 3 (64), pp. 373–388.
Ysseldyk R., Matheson K., Anisman H. Religiosity as identity: Toward an understanding of religion from a social identity perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2010, no. 1 (14), pp. 60–71.
Belinskaia E. P. Izmenchivost' Ia: krizis identichnosti ili krizis znaniia o nei? [Changeability of self: a crisis of identity or a crisis of knowledge about it?]. Psikhologicheskie issledovaniia – Psychological Research, 2015, V. 8, no. 40, P. 12.
Bogatova O. A. Religioznaia identichnost' i religioznye – praktiki v Mordovii [Religious identity and religious practices in Mordovia]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia – Sociological Research, 2011, no. 8, pp. 114–122.
Dmitriev M. V. Problematika issledovatel'skogo proekta “Confessiones et nationes. Konfessional'nye traditsii i protonatsional'nye diskursy v istorii Evropy”: Religioznye i etnicheskie traditsii v formirovanii natsional'nykh identichnostei v Evrope. Srednie veka [The problematics of the “Confessiones et nationes. Religious traditions and protonational discourses in the history of Europe” research project: Religious and ethnic traditions in the formation of national identities in Europe. Middle Ages – Modernity]. Moscow, Indrik Publ., 2008, pp. 15–42.
Drobizheva L. M. Identichnost' i etnicheskie ustanovki russkikh v svoei inoetnicheskoi srede [Identity and ethnic attitudes of Russians in their foreign ethnic environment]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia – Sociological Research, 2010, no. 12, pp. 49–58.
Ivanova N. L. Psikhologicheskaia struktura sotsial'noi identichnosti. Diss. dokt. psikh. nauk [Psychological structure of social identity. Dr. psych. sci. diss]. Moscow, 2003.
Leonov N. I. Problema uregulirovaniia konfliktov v interkul'turnom mire // Sotsial'nyi mir cheloveka. Vyp. 6 [The problem of arrangement conflicts in the intercultural world: The social world of a man. Vol. 6]. Materialy VI Mezhdunarodnoi nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii «Chelovek i mir: mirosozidanie, konflikt i mediatsiia v interkul'turnom mire» [Proc. the VI International Theoretical and Practical Conference “A man and the world: peace-building, conflict and mediation in the intercultural world”]. Izhevsk, ERGO Publ., 14–16 April, 2016, pp. 7–10.
Tkhostov A. Sh., Rasskazova E. I. Identichnost' kak psikhologicheskii konstrukt: vozmozhnosti i ogranicheniia mezhdistsiplinarnogo podkhoda [Identity as a psychological construct: potential and limitations of the interdisciplinary approach]. Psikhologicheskie issledovaniia – Psychological Research, 2012, V. 5, no. 26, P. 2.
Khait M. A. Krosskul'turnoe issledovanie vzaimosviazi slozhnosti sotsial'noi identichnosti i otnosheniia k neopredelennosti v Rossii i Italii [The cross-cultural study of the correlation of the complexity of social identity and the relation to uncertainty in Italy and Russia]. Sotsial'naia psikhologiia i obshchestvo – Social Psychology and Society, 2014, V. 5, no. 2, pp. 87–99.
Khukhlaev O. E., Khait M. A. Slozhnost' sotsial'noi identichnosti: kontseptsiia S. Rokkas i M. Briuera [The complexity of social identity: the concept of S. Roccas and M. Brewer]. Sotsial'naia psikhologiia i obshchestvo – Social Psychology and Society, 2012, no. 3, pp. 16–26.
Al-Raffie D. Social Identity Theory for Investigating Islamic Extremism in the Diaspora. Journal of Strategic Security, 2013, no. 4 (6), pp. 67–91.
Bakker E. Jihadi terrorists in Europe, their characteristics and the circumstances in which they joined the jihad: An exploratory study. Hague: Clingendael Institute, 2006. URL: http://www.clingendael.nl /sites/default /files/ 20061200_ cscp_csp_bakker.pdf
Beyer P. Religion and Globalization. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1994. 256 p.
Brewer M. B., Pierce K. P. Social identity complexity and outgroup tolerance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2005, no. 31, pр. 428–437.
Ellemers N., Spears R., Doosje B. Self and Social Identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 2002, no. 53, pр. 161–186.
Feitosa J., Salas E., Salazar M. R. Social Identity: Clarifying its Dimensions across Cultures. Psihologijske teme, 2012, no. 3 (21), pp. 527–548.
Fleischmann F. P., Karen K. O. Religious Identification and Politicization in the Face of Discrimination. Support for Political Islam and Political Action among the Turkish and Moroccan Second Generation in Europe. British Journal of Social Psychology, 2011, no. 4 (50), pp. 628–648.
Harff B. No lessons learned from the Holocaust? Assessing risks of genocide and political mass murder since 1955. American Political Science Review, 2003, no. 1 (97), pр. 57–73.
Hoffman B. “Holy terror”: the implications of terrorism motivated by a religious imperative. Worldwide Department of Defense Combating Terrorism Conference. Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1993. 201 p.
Hogg M. A., Williams K. D. From I to we: Social identity and the collective self. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2000, no. 1 (4), pр. 81–97.
Juergensmeyer M. Global Dimensions of Religious Terrorism. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 141–160.
Kahani-Hopkins V., Hopkins N. Representing’ British Muslims: The strategic dimensions to identity construction. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2002, no. 25, pр. 288–309.
Kinnvall C. Globalization and religious nationalism: Self, identity, and the search for ontological security. Political Psychology, 2004, no. 25, pp. 741–767.
Lathion S. Muslims in Switzerland: Is Citizenship Really Incompatible with Muslim Identity? Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2008, no. 1 (28), P. 56.
Loza W. The prevalence of Middle-Eastern extremist ideologies among some Canadian offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2010, no. 5 (25), pp. 919–928.
Marcia J. Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, no. 3, pp. 551–558.
Marranci G. Faith, Ideology and Fear: Muslim Identities Within and Beyond Prisons. N. Y., London: Continuum, 2011. 181 p.
Miller K. P., Brewer M. B., Arbuckle N. L. Social identity complexity: Its correlates and antecedents. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 2009, no. 12, pp. 79–94.
Mirella L., Stroink J. Processes and Preconditions Underlying Terrorism in Second-Generation Immigrants. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 2007, no. 3 (13), pр. 293–312.
Nielsen J. S. Muslims in Western Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012. 248 p.
Pargament K. I., Koenig H. G., Perez L. M. The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the cope. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2000, no. 4 (56), pp. 519–543.
Peek L. The development of religious identity. Sociology of Religion, 2005, no. 3 (66), pp. 215–242.
Post J. M., et al. The Psychology of Suicide Terrorism. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 2009, no. 1 (72), pp. 13–31.
Reicher S. D., Haslam S. A., Rath R. Making a virtue of evil: A five-step social identity model of the development of collective hate. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2008, no. 2, pp. 1313–1344.
Roccas S., Brewer M. B. Social identity complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2002, no. 6, pр. 88–106.
Sageman M. Understanding terrorist networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. 200 p.
Schmid K., Hewstone M., Tausch N., Cairns E., Hughes J. Antecedents and Consequences of Social Identity Complexity: Intergroup Contact, Distinctiveness Threat and Outgroup Attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2009, no. 8 (35), P. 1085.
Silke A. Holy warriors: exploring the psychological processes of jihadi radicalization. European Journal of Criminology, 2008, no. 1 (5), pp. 99–123.
Stryker S. & Burke P. J. The Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 2000, no. 4, pp. 284–297.
Turner J. Self and collective: cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1994, no. 5 (20), pp. 454–463.
Verkuyten M. Religious group identification and interreligious relations: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 2007, no. 3, pp. 341–357.
Verkuyten M., Martinovic B. Social identity complexity and immigrants attitudes toward the host nation: the intersection of ethnic and religious group identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 2012, no. 7 (42), pp. 893–903.
Verkuyten M., Yildiz A. A. Muslim immigrants and religious group feelings: A study among Sunni and Alevi Turkis Dutch. Ethnic and Racial Studie, 2009, no. 32, pp. 1121–1142.
Verkuyten M., Yildiz A. A. National (dis)identification and ethnic and religious identity: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2007, no. 33, pр. 1448–1462.
Vilchinsky N., Kravetz S. How are religious belief and behavior good for you? An investigation of mediators relating religion to mental health in a sample of Israeli Jewish students. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 2005, no. 44, pp. 459–471.
Waterman A. S. Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychologist, 1982, no. 18, pp. 341–358.
Wilner A., Dubouloz C.-J. Homegrown Terrorism and Transformative Learning: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding Radicalization. Global Change, Peace and Security, 2010, no. 1 (22), P. 41.
Yasmeen S. Understanding Muslim Identities: From Perceived Relative Exclusion to Inclusion. Perth: Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Office of Multicultural Interests, 2008. URL: http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/a-diverse-australia/national-action-plan/_attach/final-muslim-identities.pdf
Young R. & Collin A. Introduction: constructivism and social constructionism in the career field. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 2004, no. 3 (64), pp. 373–388.
Ysseldyk R., Matheson K., Anisman H. Religiosity as identity: Toward an understanding of religion from a social identity perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2010, no. 1 (14), pp. 60–71.