Abstract
Although emotional display rules and cultural display rules became intensive attention in the last years, university lecturers’ display rules in interaction with students have not been studied so far, especially a cross-cultural perspective is missing. This study aimed to find out the association between cultural dimensions, display rules and such aspects of interpersonal interaction as partner’s gender and degree of situation publicity in the context of higher education and more specific in the lecturer-student communication. The theoretical frameworks of the study cover the concepts of individualism-collectivism and cultural value orientations in education, as well as the empirical evidence related to cross-cultural differences in overall expressivity, intensity and authenticity of emotion expression and display rules in public and private situations. The results are partly contrary to posted hypotheses and contradict the existing data comparing overall expressivity, display rules, intensity and authenticity of affective expression in participants from collectivistic and individualistic cultures. We found
similar patterns of display rules used by Russian and German lecturers dependent on emotion valence, student’s gender and situation publicity. We revealed that German academics in comparison to Russian academics show lower expressivity, whereas Russian university lecturers tend to express the experienced emotions with higher
authenticity. More specifically, the expression of negative emotions in the group of Russian lecturers in comparison to German lecturers is characterized through higher intensity. We discuss the results from the perspective of 1) “approximation” tendency between cultural value orientations in education in Germany and Russia; 2) cross-cultural differences in recalled emotional experience and 3) gender-specific
characteristics of reported emotional expression.
References
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Malatesta C. Z. & Haviland J. M. learning display rules: The socialization of emotion expression in infancy // child Development. – 1982. – 53. – pp. 991–1003.
Markus H. R. & Kitayama S. culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation // psychological review. – 1991. – 98 (2). – pp. 224–253.
Matsumoto D. cultural similarities and differences in display rules // Motivation & Emotion. – 1990. – 14. – pp. 195–214.
Matsumoto D. et al. Mapping expressive differences around the world. The relationship between emotional display rules and individualism versus collectivism // journal of cross-cultural psychology. – 2008. – 39. – pp. 55–74.
Matsumoto D., Nezlek J. B., Koopmann B. Evidence for universality in phenomenological Emotion response System coherence // Emotion. – 2007. – 7 (1). – pp. 57–67.
Matsumoto D., Yoo S. H., Hirayama S. & Petrova G. validation of an individual-level measure of display rules: The display rule assessment inventory (DraI) // Emotion. – 2005. – 5. – pp. 23–40.
Mesquita B., Markus H. R. culture and emotion: Models of agency as sources of cultural variation in emotion / Frijda N. h., Manstead a. S. r. & Fisher a. (Eds.) Feelings and emotions: The amsterdam symposium. – cambridge, Ma: cambridge university press, 2004. – pp. 341–358.
Morris L. A., Feldman D. C. The Dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of emotional labour // academy of Management review. – 1996. – v. 21. – no. 4. – pp. 986–1010.
Navarro M. L. A., Mas M. B. & Jiménez A. M. L. Working conditions, burnout and stress symptoms in university professors: validating a structural model of the mediating effect of perceived personal competence // The Spanish journal of psychology. – 2010. – 13. – pp. 284–296.
Ogbonna E. & Harris L. C. Work intensification and emotional labour among uK university lecturers: an exploratory study // organizational Studies. – 2004. – 25. – pp. 1185–1203.
Oyserman D., Coon H. M., Kemmelmeier M. rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses // psychological Bulletin. – 2002. – 128 (1). – pp. 3–72.
Postareff L. & Lindblom-Ylänne S. Emotions and confidence within teaching in higher education // Studies in higher Education. – 2011. – 36. – pp. 799–813.
Rafaeli A. When cashiers meet customers: an analysis of the role of supermarket cahiers // academy of Management journal. – 1989. – 32. – pp. 245–273.
Safdar S., Friedlmeier W., Matsumoto D., Yoo S. H., Kwantes C., Kakai H., Shigemasu E. variations of emotional display rules within and across cultures: a comparison between canada, uSa, and japan // canadian journal of Behavioural Science. – 2009. – 41 (1). – pp. 1–10.
Scherer K. R. Facets of emotion: recent research. – london: routledge, 1988.
Schwartz S. H. National culture as value orientations: consequences of value Differences and cultural Distance // handbook of the Economics of art and culture. – 2014. – v. 2. – pp. 547–586.
Schwartz S. H., Boehnke K. Evaluating the structure of human values with confirmatory factor analysis // journal of research in personality. – 2004. – 38. – pp. 230–255.
Schwartz S. H., Ros M. values in the West: a theoretical and empirical challenge to the Individualism-collectivism cultural dimension // World psychology. – 1995. – 1. – pp. 99–122.
Stephanou G. & Kyridis A. university students’ perceptions of teacher effectiveness and emotions in lectures: The role of socio-cognitive factors, and academic performance // International Education Studies. – 2012. – 15. – pp. 58–79.
Sutton R. E. & Wheatley K. F. Teachers’ emotions and teaching: a review of the literature and directions for future research // Educational psychology review. – 2003. – 15. – pp. 327–358.
Taylor S. & Tyler M. Emotional labour and sexual difference in the airline industry // Work, Employment and Society. – 2000. – 14. – pp. 77–95.
Timmers M., Fischer A. H., Manstead A. S. R. gender differences in motives for regulatin emotions // personality and Social psychology Bulletin. – 1988. – v. 24. – pp. 974–985.
Trigwell K. relations between teachers’ emotions in teaching and their approaches to teaching in higher education: a pilot study. paper presented at 13th conference of the European association for research on learning and Instruction. – Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2009.
Trigwell K. relations between teachers’ emotions in teaching and their approaches to teaching in higher education // Instructional Science. – 2012. – 40. – pp. 607–621.
White C. J. higher education emotions: a scale development exercise // higher Education research and Development. – 2012.
Wong S., Bond M. H. & Rodriguez Mosquera P. M. The influence of cultural value orientations on self-reported emotional expression across cultures // journal of cross-cultural psychology. – 2008. – 39 (2). – pp. 224–229.
Zhang Q. & Zhu W. Exploring Emotion in Teaching: Emotional labor, Burnout and Satisfaction in chinese higher Education // communication Education. – 2008. – 57. – pp. 105–122.
Ashton-James C. E., Maddux W. W., Galinsky A. D., Chartrand T. L. Who I am Depends on how I Feel The role of affect in the Expression of culture // psychological Science. – 2009. – 20 (3). – pp. 340–346.
Banerjee M. hidden emotions: preschoolers’ knowledge of appearance- reality and emotion display rules // Social cognition. – 1997. – 15. – pp. 107–132.
Bocharova O. & Lerner A. characteristics of the way of life of adolescents // russian Education and Society. – 2000. – 42 (6). – pp. 37–48.
Brody L., Lovas G., Hay D. gender differences in anger and fear as a function of situational context // Sex roles. – 1995. – v. 32. – pp. 47–78.
Constanti P., Gibbs P. higher education teachers and emotional labour // International journal of Educational Management. – 2004. – v. 18. – no. 4. – pp. 243–249.
Ekman P., Friesen W. V. The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: categories, origins, usage, and coding // Semiotica. – 1969. – v. 1. – no. 1. – pp. 49–98.
Elliott J., Tudge J. The Impact of the West on post-Soviet russian Education: change and resistance to change // comparative Education. – 2007. – v. 43. – no. 1. – Special Issue (33): Western psychological and Educational Theory and practice in Diverse contexts. – pp. 93–112.
Gates G. S. The socialization of feelings in undergraduate education: a study of emotional management // college Student journal. – 2000. – 34. – pp. 485–504.
Goldberg L. S. & Grandey A. A. Display rules versus display autonomy: emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and task performance in a call center simula- tion // journal of occupational health psychology. – 2007. – 12. – p. 301.
Gosserand R. H. & Diefendorff J. M. Emotional display rules and emotional labor: the moderating role of commitment // journal of applied psychology. – 2005. – 90. – p. 1256.
Gouveia V. V., Ros M. hofstede and Schwartz’s models for classifying individualism at the cultural level: their relation to macro-social and macro-economic variables // psicothema. – 2000. – v. 12. – pp. 25–33.
Gross J. J. & John O. P. Facets of emotional expressivity: Three self-report factors and their correlates // personality & Individual Differences. – 1995. – 19. – pp. 558–568.
Hagenauer G. & Volet S. E. “I don’t think I could, you know, just teach without any emotion”: Exploring the nature and origin of university teachers’ emotions // research papers in Education. – 2014. – 29 (2). – pp. 240–262.
Hagenauer G., Volet S. E. & Gläser-Zikuda M. Emotionen und Emotionsausdruck von Hochschuldozierenden in der Lehrerausbildung [Emotions and emotion display of higher education teachers involved in teacher education]. paper presented at the 2nd gEBF conference. – Frankfurt, germany, 2014.
Hochschild A. The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. – california: The university of california press, 1983.
Hofstede G. H. culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). – Thousand oaks, ca: Sage, 2001.
Hufton N. & Elliott J. G. Motivation to learn: the pedagogical nexus in the russian school: some implications for transnational research and policy borrowing // Educational Studies. – 2000. – 26. – pp. 115–136.
Hufton N., Elliott J. G. & Illushin L. Educational motivation and engagement: qualitative accounts from three countries // British Educational research journal. – 2002. – 28 (2). – pp. 265–289.
Hufton N., Elliott J. G. & Illushin L. Teachers’ Beliefs about Student Motivation: Similarities and Differences across cultures // comparative Education. – 2003. – v. 39. – no. 3. – pp. 367–389.
Iartsev D. V. characteristics of the socialization of today’s adolescent // Russian Education and Society. – 2000. – 42 (11). – pp. 67–75.
Kirpotin S. N. The challenge of Developing Innovative Teaching Methods in a russian university // Teaching in higher Education. – 1999. – v. 4. – no. 3. – pp. 415–417.
Kitayama S., Markus H. R., Kurokawa M. culture, Emotion, and Well-being: good Feelings in japan and the united States // cognition and Emotion. – 2000. – 14 (1). – pp. 93–124.
Konstantinovskii D. L. & Khokhlushkina F. A. The formation of the social behaviour of young people in the sphere of education // russian Education and Society. – 2000. – 42 (2). – pp. 26–58.
Koopmann-Holm B., Matsumoto D. values and Display rules for Specific Emotions // journal of cross-cultural psychology. – 2011. – 42 (3). – pp. 355–371.
Kordts-Freudinger R. a social-emotional enterprise: positive emotions in higher education teaching. paper presented at the 2nd gEBF conference. – Frankfurt, germany, 2014.
Kruml S. M., Geddes D. Exploring the Dimensions of Emotional labor: The heart of hochschild’s Work // Management communication Quarterly. – 2000. – v. 14. – no. 8.
Kuppens O., Ceulemans E., Timmerman M. E., Diener E., Kim-Prieto C. universal Intracultural and Intercultural Dimensions of the recalled Frequency of Emotional Experience // journal of cross-cultural psychology. – 2006. – v. 37. – no. 5. – pp. 491–515.
Malatesta C. Z. & Haviland J. M. learning display rules: The socialization of emotion expression in infancy // child Development. – 1982. – 53. – pp. 991–1003.
Markus H. R. & Kitayama S. culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation // psychological review. – 1991. – 98 (2). – pp. 224–253.
Matsumoto D. cultural similarities and differences in display rules // Motivation & Emotion. – 1990. – 14. – pp. 195–214.
Matsumoto D. et al. Mapping expressive differences around the world. The relationship between emotional display rules and individualism versus collectivism // journal of cross-cultural psychology. – 2008. – 39. – pp. 55–74.
Matsumoto D., Nezlek J. B., Koopmann B. Evidence for universality in phenomenological Emotion response System coherence // Emotion. – 2007. – 7 (1). – pp. 57–67.
Matsumoto D., Yoo S. H., Hirayama S. & Petrova G. validation of an individual-level measure of display rules: The display rule assessment inventory (DraI) // Emotion. – 2005. – 5. – pp. 23–40.
Mesquita B., Markus H. R. culture and emotion: Models of agency as sources of cultural variation in emotion / Frijda N. h., Manstead a. S. r. & Fisher a. (Eds.) Feelings and emotions: The amsterdam symposium. – cambridge, Ma: cambridge university press, 2004. – pp. 341–358.
Morris L. A., Feldman D. C. The Dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of emotional labour // academy of Management review. – 1996. – v. 21. – no. 4. – pp. 986–1010.
Navarro M. L. A., Mas M. B. & Jiménez A. M. L. Working conditions, burnout and stress symptoms in university professors: validating a structural model of the mediating effect of perceived personal competence // The Spanish journal of psychology. – 2010. – 13. – pp. 284–296.
Ogbonna E. & Harris L. C. Work intensification and emotional labour among uK university lecturers: an exploratory study // organizational Studies. – 2004. – 25. – pp. 1185–1203.
Oyserman D., Coon H. M., Kemmelmeier M. rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses // psychological Bulletin. – 2002. – 128 (1). – pp. 3–72.
Postareff L. & Lindblom-Ylänne S. Emotions and confidence within teaching in higher education // Studies in higher Education. – 2011. – 36. – pp. 799–813.
Rafaeli A. When cashiers meet customers: an analysis of the role of supermarket cahiers // academy of Management journal. – 1989. – 32. – pp. 245–273.
Safdar S., Friedlmeier W., Matsumoto D., Yoo S. H., Kwantes C., Kakai H., Shigemasu E. variations of emotional display rules within and across cultures: a comparison between canada, uSa, and japan // canadian journal of Behavioural Science. – 2009. – 41 (1). – pp. 1–10.
Scherer K. R. Facets of emotion: recent research. – london: routledge, 1988.
Schwartz S. H. National culture as value orientations: consequences of value Differences and cultural Distance // handbook of the Economics of art and culture. – 2014. – v. 2. – pp. 547–586.
Schwartz S. H., Boehnke K. Evaluating the structure of human values with confirmatory factor analysis // journal of research in personality. – 2004. – 38. – pp. 230–255.
Schwartz S. H., Ros M. values in the West: a theoretical and empirical challenge to the Individualism-collectivism cultural dimension // World psychology. – 1995. – 1. – pp. 99–122.
Stephanou G. & Kyridis A. university students’ perceptions of teacher effectiveness and emotions in lectures: The role of socio-cognitive factors, and academic performance // International Education Studies. – 2012. – 15. – pp. 58–79.
Sutton R. E. & Wheatley K. F. Teachers’ emotions and teaching: a review of the literature and directions for future research // Educational psychology review. – 2003. – 15. – pp. 327–358.
Taylor S. & Tyler M. Emotional labour and sexual difference in the airline industry // Work, Employment and Society. – 2000. – 14. – pp. 77–95.
Timmers M., Fischer A. H., Manstead A. S. R. gender differences in motives for regulatin emotions // personality and Social psychology Bulletin. – 1988. – v. 24. – pp. 974–985.
Trigwell K. relations between teachers’ emotions in teaching and their approaches to teaching in higher education: a pilot study. paper presented at 13th conference of the European association for research on learning and Instruction. – Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2009.
Trigwell K. relations between teachers’ emotions in teaching and their approaches to teaching in higher education // Instructional Science. – 2012. – 40. – pp. 607–621.
White C. J. higher education emotions: a scale development exercise // higher Education research and Development. – 2012.
Wong S., Bond M. H. & Rodriguez Mosquera P. M. The influence of cultural value orientations on self-reported emotional expression across cultures // journal of cross-cultural psychology. – 2008. – 39 (2). – pp. 224–229.
Zhang Q. & Zhu W. Exploring Emotion in Teaching: Emotional labor, Burnout and Satisfaction in chinese higher Education // communication Education. – 2008. – 57. – pp. 105–122.